Gunding (2005)

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Gunding (2005) – Typology of crises
 

Crises come in four types:

1. Conventional – easy to predict and easily influenced
2. Unexpected – hard to predict, but easily influenced
3. Intractable – easy to predict, but hard to influence (natural disasters)
4. Fundamental – hard to predict and hard to influence (terrorist attack)

Classification of crises change over time, as “history does not repeat itself” (this nicely contrasts with Hurd and Nyberg [2004], who argue that history does repeat itself).

The Titanic was seen as an unexpected crisis at the time, but would now be seen as a conventional crisis